Blell, Mwenza (September 29, 2017). "Grandmother Hypothesis, Grandmother Effect, and Residence Patterns". The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology: 1–5. doi: 10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea2162. ISBN 978-1-118-92439-6. Harvati, Katerina (January 2003). "The Neanderthal taxonomic position: models of intra- and inter-specific craniofacial variation". Journal of Human Evolution. 44 (1): 107–132. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00208-7. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12604307. Not to be confused with Pongidae, an obsolete family which grouped together orangutans, gorillas, and chimps to separate them from humans Turner, William (April 1895). "On M. Dubois' Description of Remains recently found in Java, named by him Pithecanthropus erectus. With Remarks on so-called Transitional Forms between Apes and Man". Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. 29 (Pt 3): 424–445. PMC 1328414. PMID 17232143.

In their seminal 1967 paper in Science, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, [233] at a time when standard interpretations of the fossil record gave this divergence as at least 10 to as much as 30million years. Subsequent fossil discoveries, notably "Lucy", and reinterpretation of older fossil materials, notably Ramapithecus, showed the younger estimates to be correct and validated the albumin method. Earlier evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA suggested that no significant gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and that the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago. [81] [82] [83] However, a sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 indicated that Neanderthals did indeed interbreed with anatomically modern humans c. 45,000-80,000 years ago, around the time modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed throughout Europe, Asia and elsewhere. [84] The genetic sequencing of a 40,000-year-old human skeleton from Romania showed that 11% of its genome was Neanderthal, implying the individual had a Neanderthal ancestor 4–6 generations previously, [85] in addition to a contribution from earlier interbreeding in the Middle East. Though this interbred Romanian population seems not to have been ancestral to modern humans, the finding indicates that interbreeding happened repeatedly. [86] a b c Mcbrearty, Sally; Brooks, Alison S. (November 2000). "The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior". Journal of Human Evolution. 39 (5): 453–563. doi: 10.1006/jhev.2000.0435. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 11102266. S2CID 42968840.Sequencing mtDNA and Y-DNA sampled from a wide range of indigenous populations revealed ancestral information relating to both male and female genetic heritage, and strengthened the "out of Africa" theory and weakened the views of multiregional evolutionism. [247] Aligned in genetic tree differences were interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin. [248] In May 2010, a new species, Homo gautengensis, was discovered in South Africa. [62] H. rudolfensis and H. georgicus [ edit ] Kaufman, Danial (2002), "Comparisons and the Case for Interaction among Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans in the Levant" (Oxford Journal of Anthropology) Viegas, Jennifer (May 21, 2010). "Toothy Tree-Swinger May Be Earliest Human". Discovery News. Silver Spring, MD: Discovery Communications, LLC. Archived from the original on May 9, 2015 . Retrieved April 28, 2015.

Study identifies energy efficiency as reason for evolution of upright walking". UANews. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona. July 16, 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2022 . Retrieved April 23, 2015. a b Sayers, Ken; Raghanti, Mary Ann; Lovejoy, C. Owen (October 2012). "Human Evolution and the Chimpanzee Referential Doctrine". Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 119–138. doi: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145815. ISSN 0084-6570.

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a b Krause, Johannes; Qiaomei Fu; Good, Jeffrey M.; etal. (April 8, 2010). "The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia". Nature. 464 (7290): 894–897. Bibcode: 2010Natur.464..894K. doi: 10.1038/nature08976. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10152974. PMID 20336068. S2CID 4415601. Sample, Ian (June 22, 2015). "My Neanderthal sex secret: modern European's great-great grandparent link". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 23, 2016 . Retrieved July 27, 2018. Noonan, James P. (May 2010). "Neanderthal genomics and the evolution of modern humans". Genome Research. 20 (5): 547–553. doi: 10.1101/gr.076000.108. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 2860157. PMID 20439435.

Furthermore, the changes in the structure of human brains may be even more significant than the increase in size. [139] [140] [141] [51] Fossilized skulls shows the brain size in early humans fell within the range of modern humans 300,000 years ago, but only got it present-day brain shape between 100,000 and 35,000 years ago. [142] The size and shape of the skull changed over time. The leftmost, and largest, is a replica of a modern human skull. The earliest member of the genus Homo is Homo habilis which evolved around 2.8million years ago. [32] H.habilis is the first species for which we have positive evidence of the use of stone tools. They developed the Oldowan lithic technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in which the first specimens were found. Some scientists consider Homo rudolfensis, a larger bodied group of fossils with similar morphology to the original H.habilis fossils, to be a separate species, while others consider them to be part of H.habilis—simply representing intraspecies variation, or perhaps even sexual dimorphism. The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, [77] lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 [78] to about 28,000 years ago. [79] Zalmout, Iyad S.; Sanders, William J.; MacLatchy, Laura M.; etal. (July 15, 2010). "New Oligocene primate from Saudi Arabia and the divergence of apes and Old World monkeys". Nature. 466 (7304): 360–364. Bibcode: 2010Natur.466..360Z. doi: 10.1038/nature09094. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20631798. S2CID 205220837. Wayman, Erin (August 19, 2013). "Killer whales, grandmas and what men want: Evolutionary biologists consider menopause". Science News. ISSN 0036-8423. Archived from the original on November 6, 2014 . Retrieved April 24, 2015.The gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and then the orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first groups to split from the line leading to the hominins, including humans—followed by gorillas (genus Gorilla), and, ultimately, by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between hominin and chimpanzee lineages is placed by some between 4to8 million years ago, that is, during the Late Miocene. [266] [267] [268] [269] Speciation, however, appears to have been unusually drawn out. Initial divergence occurred sometime between 7to13 million years ago, but ongoing hybridization blurred the separation and delayed complete separation during several millions of years. Patterson (2006) dated the final divergence at 5to6 million years ago. [270] A number of other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased reliance on vision rather than smell (highly reduced olfactory bulb); a longer juvenile developmental period and higher infant dependency; [178] a smaller gut and small, misaligned teeth; faster basal metabolism; [179] loss of body hair; [180] an increase in Mellars, Paul; French, Jennifer C. (July 29, 2011). "Tenfold Population Increase in Western Europe at the Neandertal–to–Modern Human Transition Paul". Science. 333 (6042): 623–627. Bibcode: 2011Sci...333..623M. doi: 10.1126/science.1206930. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21798948. S2CID 28256970. Stringer, C. (2012). "What makes a modern human". Nature. 485 (7396): 33–35. Bibcode: 2012Natur.485...33S. doi: 10.1038/485033a. PMID 22552077. S2CID 4420496. (archaic admixture).