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Parssinen, T. M. (Autumn 1974). "Popular Science and Society: The Phrenology Movement in Early Victorian Britain". Journal of Social History. 8 (1): 1–20. doi: 10.1353/jsh/8.1.1. JSTOR 3786523. PMID 11632363. Examples of phrenological tools can be seen in The Museum of Questionable Medical Devices in Minneapolis, Minnesota a b c Wihe, J. V. (2002). "Science and Pseudoscience: A Primer in Critical Thinking". Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. California: Skeptics Society. pp.195–203. Baggerman, J. Arianne; Dekker, Rudolf M.; Mascuch, Michael James (2011). Controlling Time and Shaping the Self: Developments in Autobiographical Writing Since the Sixteenth Century. Brill. p.250–. ISBN 978-90-04-19500-4– via Google Books. During the 1930s, Belgian colonial authorities in Rwanda used phrenology to explain the purported superiority of Tutsis over Hutus. [49] Application [ edit ] 1848 edition of American Phrenological Journal published by Fowlers & Wells, New York Racism [ edit ]Phrenology: This pseudo medicine operated on the belief that mental faculties were each represented by a different part of the brain and that the size of the brain and therefore the skull in those areas, was based on the person's capacity for those traits We're onto our 3rd year of six things mystery box gifts for our birthdays and xmas. Each one is amazing. We can tell the items are selected with care. You really do go above and beyond. Thank you so much." Belle and Josh, Brisbane QLD Parker Jones, F. (31 January 2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology". bioRxiv 10.1101/243089.

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The American brothers Lorenzo Niles Fowler (1811–1896) and Orson Squire Fowler (1809–1887) were leading phrenologists of their time. Orson, together with associates Samuel Robert Wells and Nelson Sizer, ran the phrenological business and publishing house Fowlers & Wells in New York City. Meanwhile, Lorenzo spent much of his life in England, where he initiated the famous phrenological publishing house L. N. Fowler & Co. and gained considerable fame with his phrenology head (a china head showing the phrenological faculties), which has become a symbol of the discipline. [32] Orson Fowler was known for his octagonal house.

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Some scientists believed phrenology affirmed European superiority over other races. By comparing skulls of different ethnic groups it was thought to allow for ranking of races from least to most evolved. Broussais, a disciple of Gall, proclaimed that the Caucasians were the most beautiful, while peoples like the Australian Aboriginal and Māori would never become civilized since "they had no cerebral organ for producing great artists". [50] Few phrenologists argued for the emancipation of the slaves, while many used it to advocate for slavery. [51] Instead they argued that through education and interbreeding the "lesser peoples" could improve. [52] Another argument was that the natural inequality of people could be used to situate them in the most appropriate place in society. [51] Gender stereotyping [ edit ]